{"id":451,"date":"2022-10-12T06:00:59","date_gmt":"2022-10-12T12:00:59","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.ulprospector.com\/knowledge\/?p=451"},"modified":"2024-06-26T08:59:32","modified_gmt":"2024-06-26T14:59:32","slug":"pc-coating-film-defects","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/ulprospector.ul.com\/451\/pc-coating-film-defects\/","title":{"rendered":"Coating Film Defects"},"content":{"rendered":"

Original article date: Apr. 18, 2014
\nUpdated by Jochum Beetsma on Oct. 12, 2022<\/p>\n

Introduction<\/h3>\n

During film formation, a paint must transform from a liquid material to a closed, strong and beautiful coating. To give optimum protective and aesthetical properties, a coating should be smooth and without craters, pinholes, cracks etcetera. Defects can ruin the desired properties of coatings. A huge amount of time and money is invested in preventing and resolving defects. Substantial savings can be made when knowledge, being both simple and available, is used. Preventing or resolving a defect is easier and faster when the phenomena, that cause the defect, are known and understood. A wide variety of coating defects occur.1,2<\/sup> In the following, only a few of them are briefly discussed.<\/p>\n

Crawling<\/h3>\n

Crawling, also called retraction or pulling back, is a uniform de-wetting effect: the surface energy of the solid substrate (\u213d<\/strong>sg<\/sub>) is lower than the surface tension of the liquid paint (\u213d<\/strong>lg<\/sub>).3<\/sup> The resulting effect is that the liquid paint does not fully wet the substrate: the liquid retracts and forms droplets, leaving part of the substrate naked.<\/p>\n

\"Crawling\"
<\/p>\n

Crawling: liquid paint retracts from the solid substrate.<\/center><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Wetting becomes more critical when the surface energy of the substrate is low and\/or when the surface tension of the liquid paint is high. A substrate of low surface energy is called hydrophobic<\/a>, implying that the surface of the substrate is not able to interact strongly with a material brought on top of it. Unmodified plastics, for example, are materials of low surface energy. Crawling can be prevented in a number of ways. A pre-condition that has to be met, in order to obtain complete wetting, is that the substrate is clean. In some cases, the substrate must be modified in such a way that the surface energy of the substrate is raised, implying that the surface of the substrate is changed from hydrophobic<\/a> to more hydrophilic<\/a>. Substrate pre-treatment is often applied to plastics prior to coating.4<\/sup> Another approach, often used to prevent crawling, is to lower the surface tension of the liquid paint by adding an additive called wetting agent<\/a>. However, the use of wetting agents can worsen key properties, like hardness, recoatability and foam sensitivity, of the system.<\/p>\n

Cratering<\/h3>\n

Cratering is an undesired phenomenon that can start at the paint-air interface or at the substrate-paint interface. Cratering is the result of flow of liquid during film formation, caused by gradients in surface tension gamma (\u213d<\/strong>). These gradients develop when a material is present that has both a low surface tension (implying that it is hydrophobic) and a limited miscibility with the paint.<\/p>\n

A system strives to attain a state of minimum energy. Therefore, a liquid will flow from an area with low surface tension to cover an area with higher surface tension.<\/p>\n

\"Cratering\"
<\/p>\n

Cratering: a hydrophobic contaminant induces flow of liquid during film formation.<\/center><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Droplets or particles of a hydrophobic contaminant, like lubricating oil, defoamer or gel particles, are often the initiators of craters in a coating. The formation of craters can be prevented when the presence of incompatible hydrophobic contaminants is prevented. When there is cratering problem, it is a good idea to take a look at the defoamer<\/a> that might be present in the system.5<\/sup> Another point of attention is to check whether or not the substrate is contaminated.<\/p>\n

Foam<\/h3>\n

Foam bubbles can already be present in the paint before application starts. Foam can also be introduced during the application process. Especially during brushing, rolling and spraying, air can be brought into the paint. A formulator wants to develop a paint that loses its foam as soon as application has finished and film formation proceeds.<\/p>\n

Two aspects strongly dominate the formation, stabilization and release of foam. First, foam bubbles can be stabilized by additives that have a surfactant (soap) structure. This problem is most often experienced in waterbased paints. The second important aspect is the rheology of the paint. Despite the viscosity being high, the foam bubbles might be able to move to the surface of the film where they can break. However, the resulting hole possibly is not able to level out when the viscosity of the film is too high.<\/p>\n

\"Foam\"
<\/p>\n

Foam: the holes, that were left in the film when air was released during film formation, do not close.<\/center><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

The prevention of bubbles and pinholes in films, caused by foam, can be arranged in a number of ways. First, the use of surfactants<\/a> should be minimized, especially in waterbased systems. Secondly, the introduction of air in the paint during production, handling and application should be prevented as much as possible. Finally, the rheology<\/a> of the system should be such that the air, that was introduced, can easily escape during the first stage of film formation. Please be aware that the use of a defoamer<\/a>, an approach that cannot always be prevented, increases the risk of cratering.5<\/sup><\/p>\n

Cracking<\/h3>\n

A thin film on a substrate can break when the film suffers from stress. Breakage of a coating is called cracking. A coating loses its protective properties in the areas where the film has broken: within the cracks, there can be direct contact between the substrate and the environment. This can result in corrosion when the substrate is metal or in rot in case of wooden substrates. Cracking is often accompanied by loss of adhesion. Water molecules, for example, can migrate through a coating at the cracks, to reach the substrate-coating interface. Then, water can induce loss of adhesion either directly, by interfering with the intermolecular forces between substrate and coating, or indirectly, as a result of corrosion caused by the water being present at the interface.<\/p>\n

\"Cracking\"
<\/p>\n

Cracking: a coating breaks because of internal stress.<\/center><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Most often stress builds-up in coatings because of shrinkage taking place during film formation. Several phenomena can give film shrinkage. First, the chemical reaction taking place during film formation, called crosslinking, can be fast. UV-systems, for example, cure via radical polymerization, being a fast crosslink chemistry. During the cure of a UV system, a high crosslink density is generated in a short time during film formation, resulting in stresses being frozen-in. Secondly, evaporation can proceed too fast. In many cases, there is a competition between cure and evaporation during film formation giving stress.<\/p>\n

A high loading of solid particles (pigments and\/or fillers) can also give stress in films.<\/p>\n

Finally, stresses can occur when the substrate is not stable in its dimensions. An example is the dimensions of wood changing because of variations in humidity.<\/p>\n

Specifically, waterbased systems can suffer from internal stress, thus giving cracking. Waterbased wall paints, for example, are often based on binder emulsions. During film formation, the water evaporates from the film and the binder droplets merge. Stress can build-up in such a system during film formation, especially when a high amount of solid particles is present. In such a loaded system, the merging of the binder droplets can become critical and the film can crack because of the stress that builds-up during film formation.<\/p>\n

Cracking is highly undesirable from both protective and aesthetical point of view. As with many defects, several options are available to tackle a cracking problem. What solution must be chosen depends upon the cause(s) of cracking of the coating.<\/p>\n

References<\/strong><\/p>\n

    \n
  1. Article <\/span>Overcoming Paint Film Defects: Causes and Remedies<\/em><\/a>, Ron Lewarchik, 16 June 2017<\/span><\/li>\n
  2. Article Coating Film Defects \u2013 Part 2<\/em><\/a>, Marc Hirsch, 30 September 2016<\/li>\n
  3. Article Surface Tension and Surface Energy<\/em><\/a>, Jochum Beetsma, 27 September 2019<\/li>\n
  4. Article Plasma Processing of Plastic Surfaces<\/em><\/a>, Andy Pye, 30 December 2016<\/li>\n
  5. Article Defoamers, An Introduction<\/em><\/a>, Marc Hirsch, 29 October 2021<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

    Original article date: Apr. 18, 2014 Updated by Jochum Beetsma on Oct. 12, 2022 Introduction During film formation, a paint must transform from a liquid material to a closed, strong and beautiful coating. To give optimum protective and aesthetical properties, … 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Jochum Beetsma brings expertise in physical chemistry, raw materials, product development, innovation implementation and problem solving to his role as a paint and coatings industry expert at Prospector. As graduated physical chemist and PDMA-certified New Product Development Professional, Jochum Beetsma authors in-depth technical articles for Knowledge.ULProspector.com. Since 2004, Jochum is independent consultant, advising companies from around the world in coatings, inks and related industries. Jochum develops and executes in-company training programs on coatings and he works as interim project manager. Prior to becoming consultant, he spent 13 years at DSM Coating Resins. While at DSM, he was project manager of New Product Development projects, focusing on water-based, solvent-based, high-solids and powder coatings. He also served as chairman of the Project Management Platform within DSM. He coached project teams and prepared and facilitated complex project sessions like Project Start-Ups. Previous to his time at DSM, Jochum was a coating chemist at PPG. Jochum is widely published in various international scientific magazines and has delivered lectures worldwide. He is a current lecturer and member of the Expert Team of SpecialChem. He is also a coatings technology lecturer for, amongst others, Polymer Technology Netherlands. He currently resides in Zwolle, The Netherlands. Contact Jochum via email (j.beetsma@meritus.nl) to learn more about his consulting services.","sameAs":["https:\/\/ulprospector.ul.com"],"url":"https:\/\/ulprospector.ul.com\/author\/jochum-beetsma\/"}]}},"authors":[{"term_id":1235,"user_id":11,"is_guest":0,"slug":"jochum-beetsma","display_name":"Jochum Beetsma","avatar_url":"https:\/\/ulprospector.ul.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/07\/Jochum-Beetsma.jpg","0":null,"1":"","2":"","3":"","4":"","5":"","6":"","7":"","8":""}],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/ulprospector.ul.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/451","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/ulprospector.ul.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/ulprospector.ul.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/ulprospector.ul.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/11"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/ulprospector.ul.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=451"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/ulprospector.ul.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/451\/revisions"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/ulprospector.ul.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/458"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/ulprospector.ul.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=451"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/ulprospector.ul.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=451"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/ulprospector.ul.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=451"},{"taxonomy":"author","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/ulprospector.ul.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/ppma_author?post=451"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}